Form Four Geography Notes Topic 2 Climate And Natural Regions
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World Climatic Types and their Characteristics
Major Climatic Types of the World and their Characteristics
Climate is the average of weather condition of an area recorded over a long period, usually 35 years is taken as standard. Climate gives an integrated picture of the atmospheric conditions over a large area for a long period such as a season or a year. Some of the meteorological variables thar are observed are humidity,
Atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation, and sunshine. The scientific study of climate is known as Climatology and a person who studies about a climate is known as Climatologist
WEATHER AND CLIMATE
There are marked differences between weather and climate.
The table below summarises these differences:
| No. | Weather | Climate |
| 1. | Describes the atmospheric conditions at a specific place and time. | Describes the average atmospheric conditions of a place over a specific period of time. |
| 2. | Weather is defined as the day to day state of the atmosphere, and it is short-term (minutes to weeks) variation. | Climate is defined as statistical weather information that describes the variation of weather at a given place for a specified time interval. |
| 3. | Weather conditions are measured over a short period e.g. a few hours or days. | Climate conditions are measured over many years, e.g., 30 years. |
| 4. | Determined by real time measurements of atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, humidity, precipitation, cloud cover, and other variables. | Determined by averaging weather data over periods of 30 years. |
| 5. | Weather changes abruptly within a short period. | Climate changes slowly and gradually over many years. |
| 6. | Weather varies from one place to another within a region. | Climate remains uniform over a large area. |
| 7. | Most weather elements are measured by weather instruments. | Climatic elements are not measured but calculated from the recorded weather data. |
How different Geographical Factors Influence Climate
The climate of the world is affected by many different factors. The varying influence of these factors leads to different parts of the Earth experiencing differing climates. The most important natural (geographical) factors that affect environment are as follows;
Latitude
Areas near the equator experience higher temperatures than those farther away. At the poles, energy from the sun reaches the earth’s surface at lower angles and passes through a thicker layer of atmosphere than at the equator. This means the climate is cooler farther from the equator
Likewise, seasonal variation of rainfall is partly influenced by latitude. The equatorial region receives rainfall almost throughout the year. It also experiences high temperatures, with a small daily range, all-year-round. The amount of rainfall drops gradually as you move farther north or south of the equator
Latitude also influences the pressure and wind systems of the world. While the equatorial region experiences low pressure, the polar regions experience high pressure.The occurring of overhead sun at different times of the year in different latitudes is under influence of the latitude and has a big impact on climate. Some areas receive the maximum amount of rainfall when the overhead sun at noon is over the area. This particularly happens in the tropics which receive rains when the sun is vertically overhead at noon over the region
Altitude
The influence of altitude on climate is due to its effect on pressure and temperature. The temperature is low at higher altitudes and high at low altitudes. Generally, the temperature drops by 0.6°C for every 100 m increase in altitude. This means high altitude areas experience low temperatures compared to low altitude areas (if all the other factors affecting temperature remain the same).
The higher the place is above sea level the colder it will be.Atmospheric pressure decreases with an increase in altitude at the rate of 10 millibars for every 100 metres increase in height. This happens because as the altitude increases, the air becomes thinner and is less able to absorb and retain heat. That is why you may see snow on the top of mountains all year round
Climate can be affected by mountains. Mountains receive more rainfall than low-lying areas because as warm, moist air is forced over the higher ground it cools, causing the moisture in it to condense and fall down as rainfall
Ocean currents
Ocean currents transport warm water and precipitation from the equator toward the poles and cold water from the poles back to the tropics. In this way, the ocean currents help regulate the earth’s climate by facilitating heat transfer from warm tropical areas to colder areas near the poles and vice versa. Without currents, land temperatures would be more extreme, very hot at the equator and cold toward the poles, consequently, much less of earth‘s land would be habitable
Ocean currents flowing along the coast, especially if the wind is onshore, tend to modify the climate of the adjacent coastal land. Where the winds are onshore and blow over a cold current, they are cooled before reaching the land and the moisture they contain is condensed and dropped over the sea as rain. By the time the winds reach the land they contain very little moisture and hence cause very little or no rainfall. This explains why coastal areas bordering cold ocean currents have turned into deserts because of receiving very little rains.
Where warm ocean currents are onshore, they bring warmth to the adjacent lands and hence make the coastal land’s temperature higher than normal. These currents often bring the moisture-laden winds which condense to form rainfall on land. This leads to an insular climate along the coast
Distance from the sea
Coastal areas are cooler and wetter than inland areas. Clouds form when warm air from inland areas meets cool moist air from the sea. This often results in heavy rains along the coast. Places in the interior of the continents are subject to higher temperatures. In the summer, temperatures can be very hot and dry as moisture in the onshore wind is lost before the wind reaches the centre of the landmass
The influence of continentality is greater in temperate regions due to extremes in temperatures. During summer, cool moist winds blow from the sea to the warm, dry land, bringing about the cooling effect on the land they blow. This makes summer temperatures not as high as expected. During winter, the sea is warmer than the land. Warm onshore winds in winter bring warmth to the land. This makes the winter temperature higher than expected
During winter, onshore winds are cooled as they blow towards the interior of the continent. By the time they reach the interior they are cold enough to cause a cooling effect. This makes the interior experience hotter summers and cooler winters
Regarding rainfall, warm moist onshore winds bring rainfall to the land whereas the coastal areas receive more rainfall than areas in the interior. Thus, coastal areas are wetter than areas farther away.
Coastal areas also tend to have high humidity because of high evaporation of water from the nearby sea.
Coastal climates resulting from the influence of the sea are described as insular or maritime or oceanic and are characterized by high rainfall throughout the year. Areas that are disadvantaged because of being far from the sea are said to experience continental climate. They are found in the interior of the continent or in coastal areas where offshore winds prevail
Aspect
Aspect generally refers to the direction to which a mountain slope faces. In the southern hemisphere, the northward-facing slopes always receive plentiful sunlight while the southward facing slopes do not. In contrast, in the southern hemisphere, the northward-facing slopes receive plenty of sunlight while the southward-facing slopes do not
As a result, the southward-facing slopes in the northern hemisphere and the northward-facing slopes in the southern hemisphere are warmer while the northward-facing slopes in the northern hemisphere and the southward-facing slopes in the southern hemisphere are cooler
Wind and air masses
Prevailing winds are winds that blow consistently in a given direction over a particular region on Earth. Winds are the media of transporting heat or coldness and moisture from one place of the earth to the other.
Therefore, the temperature of the land over which the wind blows will be modified according to whether the wind blowing over it is cold or warm. In this case, the climate of a particular region of the Earth will depend on the nature of the prevailing wind that passes over that region
The rain that falls over different places of the Earth results from the moisture carried by winds from the water bodies or thick forests to areas far away from the sources. For example, the rainfall that is received along the coast and interior of Tanzania is mainly brought by the SouthEast Trade winds. The winds carry moisture mainly from the Indian Ocean onto the land where it condenses and falls as rain
The onshore monsoon winds carry a lot of moisture from the sea and are responsible for the heavy monsoon rains that are experienced in India and South-East Asia
Alignment of the coastline
This refers to the position of the coastline in relation to the prevailing winds. Where the onshore winds blow diagonally to the shore, they cause heavy rainfall along the coast. The same case occurs where the coast is aligned in such a way that the onshore winds meet along with it.
An example of this case is the coast of Mombasa, where the North-East and SouthEast Trade winds sometimes meet and result in a lot of rain Where the coastline is aligned in such a way that it is parallel to the path of onshore winds, the winds may drop very little or no rain at all along such a coast. The best example is the Somali coast where both the North-Easterlies and South-Easterlies blow parallel to the coastline in different seasons
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
This is a low-pressure area around the equator. The moist winds meet within this region. Places farther away from this zone experience only one rainy season while places close to the zone experience two seasons of heavy rainfall. This is because the winds converge around this region twice a year.
Forests
Areas covered with forests normally receive high rainfall as compared to those with little or no vegetation. This is because of high rates of evaporation and transpiration, leading to high humidity. Therefore, these areas often, receive high amounts of rainfall and have a modified climate.
Human activities
Human activities contribute to climate change by causing changes in the earth‘s atmosphere, such as greenhouse gases, aerosols (small particles), and cloudiness. The largest known contribution comes from burning fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide gas into the atmosphere.
Humans contribute to change in climate by cutting down trees carelessly. Trees take in carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. Therefore, a reduction in trees will increase the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as less of the gas will be absorbed. Excessive concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere causes too much heating of the Earth (global warming)
On another hand, human activities that conserve the environment constructively shape the climate. Such activities include afforestation, which turns once barren land into a forested area. Consequently, the climate of the area can be changed from semi-arid to a rainy climate
The impact of climate
Climate has many impacts to human activities. Various economic activities conducted by man in different parts of the world are governed by the type of climate experienced in a particular region. For example, people living in deserts and semi-arid regions do not practice much agriculture because their environment does not favour crop cultivation or animal husbandry. In these regions, however, a very limited agriculture and animals rearing is conducted. The animals kept include camels, goats, sheep, donkeys and other4hardy animals. Only drought resistant crops such as dates are grown in deserts and arid areas.
In tropical and equatorial regions, a lot of agriculture is carried out. The inhabitants of these regions take part in cultivation of crops and keeping of animals. Crops grown include cocoa, banana, horticultural crops and grains. The animals kept in these climatic zones include cattle, pigs, donkeys, horses, poultry and other farmyard animals. Specific types of various economic activities carried out in each climatic region will be discussed in detail in the section below.
Natural Regions of the World
A natural region is a basic geographic unit distinguished by its common natural geography, geology, and climate features. Climatic characteristics and vegetation type determine the kind of animals found in a particular geographic location. These geographical conditions also influence the type of human activities that can be carried out, including the crops grown and animals kept
Animals found in dense equatorial forests are different from those found in the savannah grassland, polar regions or deserts. For example, animals found in warm climates have short hairs while those found in cool and cold regions have long, thick hairs
Likewise, the vegetation in the equatorial region is tall and dense due to high temperature and rainfall throughout the year while that found in desert and semi-desert regions is short and scanty
Human activities also depend on climatic characteristics, vegetation type and animal species that can thrive in a particular region. For example, crop cultivation and animal husbandry activities are mainly carried in regions with sufficient rainfall. Such areas offer favourable conditions for the growth of crops and pastures as well
Different Types of Natural Regions
Equatorial climate
The equatorial region has uniformly hot and wet climatic conditions throughout the year. The natural vegetation comprises of dense, lofty equatorial forests (also known as ―selvasǁ) containing a variety of species. The tall, evergreen trees form a continuous cover at a high level.The equatorial region has uniformly hot and wet climatic conditions throughout the year. The natural vegetation comprises of dense, lofty equatorial forests (also known as ―selvasǁ) containing a variety of species. The tall, evergreen trees form a continuous cover at a high level
The top layer comprises very tall trees 45 metres tall or more and their umbrella-like tops form an almost continuous cover of tree crowns (canopy). Sometimes trees can reach a height of 70100 metres, The middle layer made of trees with heights ranging between 30 and 45 metres, The bottom layer comprising of herbaceous plants and saprophytes whose heights are less than 30 metres. Because little light reaches the ground there is little undergrowth
There are three types of animals found in the equatorial rain forests: Tree dwellers such as gorillas, chimpanzees, and monkeys have long arms that enable them to swing from branch to branch, River dwellers such as hippopotamus and crocodiles, Open-space dwellers such as elephants and other wild animals including zebras, hyenas, lions, leopards, and tigers.
Human settlements are small and scattered. Human activities carried out in the equatorial region include shifting cultivation and plantation agriculture. Crops grown in this region include yams, cassava, maize, millet, sweet potatoes, sorghum, beans, watermelons, bananas, and groundnuts. Examples of areas where this type of farming is practiced include some parts of West Africa and Asia
In plantation agriculture, crops such as cocoa, rubber, and oil palms are grown on large scale farms. Most rubber plantations are found in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and Sri Lanka. They are also found in Liberia. Cocoa plantations are found in Brazil and West Africa (Ghana, Nigeria and Ivory Coast). Oil palms are grown in Nigeria, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Other economic activities undertaken in this region include fishing, hunting, and lumbering
Tropical continental climate
The savanna region is bordered by both the equatorial region and the hot deserts. The grasses are tall and trees are more numerous near the equatorial forest region while towards the desert region the grass is short and poor and there are scattered thorny bushes. The common trees include baobabs, acacias, and gum trees
The animals found in this region are of two types: Herbivores which include wildebeests, giraffes, elephants, buffalos, hippopotamuses, zebras, antelopes and rhinos. Carnivores which include lions, hyenas, leopards, tigers, wild cats, wild dogs, foxes, etc. There are also numerous species of birds, reptiles, and insects.
The major occupations in the region include the following: Agriculture: The major crops grown in this region include maize, millet, groundnuts, beans, onions, cotton, tobacco, sugarcane, sisal, rice, and coffee. It also involves keeping animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, camels, poultry, etc.
Fishing: This is practiced in water bodies such as oceans, rivers, lakes, swamps, and ponds. Other activities include mining, lumbering, manufacturing, and tourism. Tourists come from foreign countries to view the wildlife that lives in the vast grassland. Numerous national parks have been established. In Tanzania, for example, there are national parks such as Serengeti, Mikumi, Selous, Tarangire, Ruaha, Saadani, Ngorongoro, Katavi, and Manyara.
Tropical monsoon climate
Because of population pressure, vegetation in the monsoon region has been reduced a great deal. However, there are four types of vegetation in the monsoon region that has been left: Equatorial rain forest: consists of trees such as teak and tropical cedar. Trees grow to a height of about 30 – 35 meters.
Tropical rain forest: trees found here include teak, ironwood, sandalwood, and mangrove. Mixed temperate forest: include deciduous trees such as oak, maple, walnut, and magnolia. Scrub and desert vegetation: consist of deciduous thorny trees such as tamarisk and acacias
Because of population pressure, there are few wild animals left such as tiger, elephants, hyenas, and other small animals. The main human activities carried out in areas experiencing this type of climate include rice growing and livestock husbandry. Apart from rice, the other crops grown are wheat, millet, maize, and sorghum.
Sugarcane, cotton, and jute are important lowland crops grown in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. The other crops grown are tea (Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and India) and rubber in Malaysia. Animals kept in this climatic region include pigs, cattle, buffalos, sheep, goats, and poultry. The other occupations include fishing, hunting, and tourism.
Tropical marine climate
Regions with this type of climate are located on the east coasts of regions lying between 10oN and 25oN and 10o S and 25oS. These areas are under the influence of onshore trade winds. The main areas are the east coasts of Brazil and Malagasy, the lowlands of Central America and the West Indies, the coast of Queensland (Australia) and the southern Islands of the Philippines
It‘s characteristics include:
1. Temperature characteristics are similar to those of the equatorial climate.
2. Hot season temperature is 29oC and cooler season temperature is 21oC.
3. Annual temperature range is about 8oC.
4. Total annual rainfall varies from 1000 mm to 2000 mm depending on the location.
5. Rainfall is both conventional and topographic (brought by onshore trade winds)
6. Maximum rainfall occurs in the hot season.
7. High humidity throughout the year.
This climate can generally be described as hot and humid throughout the year. However, the climate is cooled by the onshore winds blowing almost every day
Tropical desert climate
The tropical desert climate occurs on the western margins of landmasses between latitude 20o to 30o north and south of the equator. The climate is experienced in all the major tropical deserts of the world. The hot deserts occupy about one-third of the earth‘s surface. The principal tropical deserts occur on the continents as follows:
1. Africa: Sahara, Kalahari, and Namib Deserts.
2. Asia: the desert of Jordan, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Israel, and the desert of India
3. North America: Mohave, Colorado and Mexican Deserts
4. South America: Atacama Desert
5. Australia: Great Australian Desert
The region has the following characteristics;
1. Very little total annual rainfall (less than 120 mm in any one year).
2. Mean monthly temperatures range from 29oC in the hot season to 10oC in the cool season
3. In most deserts, daytime temperature can rise to as high as 47oC or more.
4. Night temperatures can fall to as low as 16oC in summer and 5oC in winter
5. Very high diurnal temperature range (due to very hot days and very old nights).
6. The annual temperature range is large. It is about 16oC.
7. Humidity is always low and therefore evaporation is high.
Warm temperate western margin (Mediterranean type)
This climate is also known as the Mediterranean climate. It occurs between 30oN and 45oN and 30oS and 40oS on the western sides of the continents. Places experiencing the Mediterranean climate are on the coastal lands around the Mediterranean Sea (the Maghreb, Spain, Italy, Greece, Egypt, and Israel), the western sides of North and South America (central California and central Chile), South Australia (Perth and Adelaide) and South Africa (Cape Province)
Characteristics of this region include:
1. Temperatures range from 21oC in the summer to 10oC (or below) in the winter
2. Mean annual temperature is about 15oC.
3. Annual total rainfall varies from 500 to 900 mm.
4. Hot, dry summers and cold, wet winters. This is because westerly winds blow offshore in the summer and onshore in the winter
Warm temperate continental (steppe type)
This type of climate is also known as warm temperate interior region. It occurs in the interior of the continents, between 20o and 35o north and south of the equator. The best examples of the areas having this climate are Murray-Darling lowlands of Australia; The high Veldt of South Africa; and the central Paraguay and central Argentina (both in South America); central lowlands of North America (Oklahoma and Texas and in northern Mexico); central European lowlands, and the plains of Manchuria
It has the following characteristics;
1. Temperatures range from 26oC in the summer to 10oC in the winter
2. The annual rainfall varies from 380 to 700 mm, depending on the distance from the sea
3. Rainfall is convectional type and falls mainly during spring and early summer
Warm temperate eastern margin (China type)
It occurs in the eastern sides of the continents between latitudes 23o and 35o north and south of the equator. The countries having this type of climate are central China, south east USA, southern Brazil, the eastern part of Argentina, South Africa, south Brazil, eastern part of Argentina, South Africa, southern Japan, and south eastern Australia
Climatic characteristics
1. Temperatures are about 26oC in summer and 13oC in the winter.
2. The total annual rainfall varies is about 1000 mm.
3. The rain is convectional and torrential type and it mostly falls in the summer.
Warm temperate desert
This type of climate is also called mid-latitude desert climate. The areas having this type of climate include Nevada and Utah states of North America and Patagonia in South America. It is also found in regions that extend from Turkey, northern Iran, across the Caspian Sea and Aral areas into former USSR. It is also experienced in the Gobi desert of Mongolia
This climate has the following characteristics:
1. High summer temperatures (25oC to 37oC).
2. Cold winters with temperatures as low as -7oC.
3. Diurnal range of temperature is around 35oC and annual range of temperature around 40oC.
4. Unreliable and low rainfall because of continentality effect. Mean annual rainfall does not exceed 250 mm and most of it falls late winter and early spring.
Cool temperate western margin (British type)
It occurs on the western sides of the continents between 45o and 60o north and south of the equator. Areas with this type of climate include North-West Europe, British Columbia in western Canada, Southern Chile, Tasmania, and the South Island of New Zealand
1. Winter temperatures range between 2oC and 7oC, while summer temperatures range from 13oC to 15oC
2. The annual temperature range is between 8oC and 11oC.
3. Rain falls throughout the year, with maxima in winter.
4. The total annual rainfall is about 760 mm
5. The rain is both conventional and cyclonic in nature
Cool temperate continental (Siberian type)
This type of climate is found extensively in the northern hemisphere. It occurs in the interiors of North America and Eurasia between 35o and 60oN
1. Moderately warm summers (18o) and very cold winters (-19oC).
2. The annual temperature range is very high (37oC)
3. Most of the rain falls in the summer.
4. The rain is convectional type and is often accompanied by thunder.
5. The annual precipitation (rain plus snow) ranges from 400 to 500 mm
Cool temperate western margin (Laurentian type)
It occurs on the eastern sides of the continents between 35oN and 5oN, and south of 40oS. It is experienced mainly on the eastern sides of North America and Asia
1. Winter temperatures range from -10oC to 4oC.
2. Summer temperatures range from 12oC to 24oC.
3. The annual temperature range is large and averages 24oC.
4. Precipitation (in the form of rain and snow) is distributed throughout the year.
5. Annual precipitation varies between 700 and 1000 mm.
6. Rainfall is both convectional and cyclonic.
Temperate desert
This climate occurs in the interiors of Eurasia and North America, and in Patagonia (South America).
1. Winters are very cold with temperatures often below -7oC.
2. Summer temperatures vary between 25oC and 37oC.
3. Diurnal temperature range is about 35oC while the annual temperature range is about 40oC.
4. Precipitation is very low, it averages about 250 mm.
5. Most of the rain falls in late winter and early spring.
Cold temperate western margin
This climate is confined to coastal areas of Scandinavia and Alaska
1. Short, cold summers with temperatures of about 12oC
2. Long winters with temperatures ranging from -2oC to 4oC
3. Annual rainfall is about 750 mm
4. Rain falls in most months except the winter when the snow falls
Cold temperate Continental
This climate occurs between 55oN and 68oN in the interior of America and Eurasia.
1. Cold and long winters with temperatures ranging between -34oC and -45oC.
2. Warm and short summers with average temperatures up to 21oC.
3. Annual precipitation is very low, about 380 mm
4. Most of the rainfalls in summer, but in winter, precipitation is in the form of snow.
Cold temperate eastern margin
This climate occurs in the north east pacific of Russia
1. Long, cold winters with an average temperature as low as -20oC or below.
2. Short, hot summers with an average temperature up to 21oC or higher.
3. Total annual rainfall varies between 500 and 1000 mm.
Tundra climate
This region occurs in the northern coast of North America, southern coast Greenland and the Arctic coast of Europe and Asia.Characteristics of the region include the following:
1. Very long, cold winters with temperatures ranging between -29oC and – 40oC.
2. Short, cool summers with temperatures of about 10oC.
3. Annual precipitation is 250 mm; some of it falls as snow in winter and as rain in summer
Polar climate
It occurs in the interiors of Iceland, Greenland, and Antarctica. Its characteristics include the following:
1. Temperatures are permanently below 0oC.
2. Precipitation is in the form of blizzards (now storms).
3. The winters consist of continuous night, and summers of continuous day.
Mountain climate
This type of climate occurs in the main mountain areas of the world. The areas that experience such climates include the East Africa Mountains, the Ethiopian highlands, the mountains and plateaus of central Asia, the Alps of Europe, the Andes of South America, and North America’s Rockies. It is characterized by the following:
1. Pressure and temperature generally decrease with an increase in altitude.
2. Precipitation increases with altitude.
3. In areas around mountains within the tropic, temperatures may range from high at the foot of a mountain to very cold at the peak, e.g. Mount Kilimanjaro.
A World Map Showing Different Natural Regions
Activity 1
Draw a world map showing different natural region
The Relationship between Human Activities and Climate
Human activities refer to any legal occupations done by man so as to earn his living or make his life better. Such activities include agriculture, fishing, mining, manufacturing, trade, tourism, lumbering, hunting and even gathering of fruits and roots from the forest
Climate, as explained early, is an average weather condition of a place recorded over a long period of time (usually 30 years). So, climate is a function of weather. Any condition that affects weather will also have an influence on climate. The chief elements of weather and hence climate are temperature and rainfall
Human activities on any place of the Earth, are influenced by climatic factors. For example, temperature and rainfall determine what kind of crop can be grown in a specific area. It also dictates the kind of animal species that can be kept in a specific location of the Earth. Because the world is divided into various climatic regions, and because climate governs human activities, it is evident that human activities are also distributed based on the climatic type experienced in different regions of the world. The relationship between climate and human activities is explained hereunder:
Equatorial climate
The equatorial climate has uniformly hot and wet climatic conditions throughout the year. The combination of high temperature and high humidity makes the climate unfavourable for sustained human activities, but very favourable for the growth of vegetation. The hum activities carried out in this region include the following;
Crops are sometimes grown on plantations, for example, cocoa in Ghana, oil palm in Malaysia, Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), rubber in Liberia, Malaysia and Indonesia, and sugarcane in Cuba.
The equatorial rainforest comprises valuable hardwoods (mahogany, ebony and greenheart), so lumbering is another economic activity
Primitive tribes inhabit the Amazon Basin of South America and Congo in Zaire. They sustain their livelihood through food gathering, hunting, fishing and shifting cultivation.
Due to the prevalence of malaria, yellow fever and other tropical diseases, and a highly leached soil that loses humus easily when the forest cover is cleared, human settlements are small and scattered
Tropical continental climate
The tropical climate generally lies between 5°N and 20°S. This region has moderate rainfall and a greater annual range of temperature. It occurs extensively in Africa, parts of the Brazilian Plateau and the Orinoco basin in South America
The region is dominated by tall grasses with scattered trees and bushes. It is the home of a variety of wild animals such as lions, zebras, wildebeests, elephants, giraffes, deer, leopards, hyenas, and tigers. Because of these tourist attractions, tourism is one of the major economic activities practiced here
In East Africa, the primitive Maasai people practice animal rearing (mainly cattle, sheep and goats) and some crop cultivation, so is the Fulani tribe in Nigeria. The Mausa tribesmen in Nigeria’s savanna region are mainly agriculturalists and keep cattle and goats for providing milk and meat
Cultivation is also practiced by people in this region, including the cultivation of food crops such as maize, banana, millet, potatoes, groundnuts, and beans. Cash crops grown include tea, coffee, tobacco and cloves. Lumbering is also carried in some areas with natural forests or where tree growing is possible
In other parts within the tropical climate, enough grass, which serves as pasture, has attracted largescale animal keeping and establishment of ranches
Tropical marine climate
The region receives rainfall almost throughout the year with maximum rainfall falling in the hot season due to onshore Trade Winds which blow all-year-round. The main human activities carried out in this climatic region includes crop cultivation, lumbering and animal rearing. The crops grown include sugarcane, rice, banana and wheat. The animals kept are such as cattle, pigs, sheep, goats and poultry.
Tropical monsoon climate
The region is characterized by seasonal reversal of winds, whereby in one season onshore winds bring heavy rains in coastal areas. Heavy rainfall is ideal for growing of rice which is the chief food crop cultivated here. The other crops include wheat, millet, maize, and sorghum
Tropical desert climate
The tropical desert region receives very low rainfall and it is hot almost throughout the year. Because of this condition, people in this region practise limited agriculture. The human activities carried out in this region include mining, animal rearing and some crop cultivation. The animals reared are such as camels, donkeys, sheep and goats. The main crops grown in this region are date palms, oil palms, and millet. Agriculture is mostly practised in oases and along river valleys
The Discovery of petroleum and their mining in recent decades have led to rapid economic development in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Iraq. The primitive Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert in South Africa and the Aborigines of Australia practice food gathering and hunting. The Bedouins of Arabia are nomadic herdsmen rearing camels, horses, and goats. They live in tents and migrate from place to place in search of pastures for their animals.
In river valleys of desert regions are scattered oasis, where agriculture has developed. There are permanent rural settlements in Nile Valley. Modern irrigation methods have ensured water supply, e.g., settled agriculture such as in the Indus in Pakistan and Imperial Valley in California. Communication is very difficult and is carried on by camels which cross deserts by well-known routes from oasis to oasis.
Warm temperate western margin (Mediterranean)
In this region, the summers are hot and dry while winters are cool and rainy. In summer, trade winds blow from land to sea giving practically no rain. In winters, this region comes under the influence of moist Westerlies blowing onshore and bringing cyclonic rain. The cultivation of grains and fruits are the most important occupations. The area is famous for the cultivation of citrus fruits, very often through irrigation. The main crops are wheat, barley, olive, grapes, tobacco, and cotton
Agricultural development has led to the growth of specialized industries such as fruit canning, wine making, food processing and flour milling. Large scale production of grapes has led to the production of different varieties of wine. Mining is also undertaken in Spain, Italy (mercury), North Africa (phosphate) and Chile (copper).
Warm temperate interior climate (Steppe type)
The natural vegetation is predominantly short grasses. These grasslands are known by different local names such as the Steppes of Eastern Europe, Prairies of North America, Pampas of Argentina, and Downs of Australia. The region has fertile black soils which are rich in organic matter
The main economic activities carried out in this region are cattle rearing and crop growing. In Australia, for example, sheep keeping for wool (merino sheep) is the major economic activity. Sheep rearing is also practiced in South Africa, Argentina and Mexico. Tourism is another activity that is carried out in the region
Wheat is the most widespread crop cultivated in these grasslands. USA, Canada, Argentina, and Australia are major exporters of wheat. Maize is also cultivated in the warmer parts of the region. Large-scale export of meat and dairy products from Australia, New Zealand and Argentina has become possible by the use of refrigeration in ships.
Warm temperate eastern margin (China type)
The main characteristics of this region are warm and moist summers and cold winters. During summer, trade winds blow onshore and moderate rainfall occurs which decreases towards the equator and in winter, westerly winds blow from the interior towards the oceans. These offshore winds do not give rainfall and so winters are dry.
The climate is suitable for animal keeping and extensive growing of crops throughout the year. The crops grown include rice, maize, cotton, sugarcane and tobacco. Animals are extensively kept in Argentina and Australia. The animals produce products such as meat, milk, butter and cheese for consumption and export
Rice is grown in China where it is consumed as a daily diet. Maize is used as a feed crop for fattening pigs and cattle. Cotton and tobacco are exported. Sugarcane is an important crop in the east coast of South Africa.
The natural vegetation consists of a mixture of both deciduous and evergreen trees in the lowlands and coniferous trees in the highlands. Therefore, lumbering is also practised in this region. Coal mining is practiced in China. In the USA, mining of both coal and oil is done.
Cool temperate western margin (British type)
Rainfall is of cyclonic origin and occurs throughout the year with maxima in winter, under the influence of westerly winds
The major economic activities include crop cultivation, animal keeping, mining, fishing, and market gardening. Dairy cattle farming is mainly practised in Scandinavian countries such as Norway Denmark and Sweden.
Wheat, barley, potatoes, sugar beet are important crops cultivated. Market gardening is widespread to satisfy the demand for vegetables. Mixed farming (both crop cultivation and animal rearing) is common.
In north-west Europe the dominant agricultural activities are sheep farming for mutton and wool, and cereal crop farming, especially wheat, barley and oats. Mineral resources have been utilised extensively to provide power and raw materials for industries. Fishing and lumbering are practised in British Columbia and Canada. In the South Island of New Zealand, rearing of sheep has developed on a commercial scale. Wool and mutton are exported
Cool temperate eastern margin (Laurentian type)
The region has warm wet summer and cold dry winters. The economic activities in this region include forestry, agriculture, and fishing. Crop cultivation is only possible in summer, which is warm and moist
Barley, oats, and potatoes are the main crops in North American while soya beans, mulberry and oil seeds are cultivated in Asia. Dairy farming is widespread near urban centers.
Fishing has developed on a commercial scale along the coast of North-Eastern USA and Japan. There are rich fishing grounds as planktons grow in abundance in the area of convergence of warm and cold currents. Japan is a major exporter of fish.
Agro-industries have also been developed for canning fruits and meat and processing of milk, fish and other agricultural products
Availability of softwood trees has enabled modern lumbering to be undertaken using machinery. Logs are utilised for manufacturing wood pulp and paper.
Cool temperate continental climate (Siberian type)
The region is very cold. As a result, there is little agriculture, as few crops can survive in the subarctic climate of these northerly lands. The long, cold winter, the frozen soils and the low mean annual temperature throughout the year allow the cultivation of only the hardiest crops. Only in the more sheltered valleys and the lands bordering the steppes are some cereals (barley, oats, rye) and root crops (potatoes) grown for local needs.
Many people living in this region are engaged in lumbering, hunting, trapping and fishing
Lumbering is probably the most important occupation of the Siberian type of climate. The vast reserves of coniferous forests provide the basis for the lumbering industry. The trees are felled for many purposes including the following: Saw-milling: This processes the logs into sawn timber, plywood, planks, hardboard and other constructional woods
Paper and pulp industry: Timber is pulped by both chemical and mechanical means to make wood pulp (the raw material for paper-making and newsprint). Canada and U.S.A. are leading producers of the world supplies of newsprint and wood pulp respectively
As a fuel: Less than a quarter of the world‘s softwood is burnt as fuel because its industrial uses are far more significant
As an industrial raw material: Timber has a wide range of uses. In Sweden, matches form a major export item. From other temperate countries, timber is used for making furniture, wood- carvings, toys, crates and packing cases.
Temperate desert climate
The main characteristic of this region is that it receives scanty rainfall. Daytime temperatures are high in summer and low in winter. Winters are long and cold below 0°C. Most precipitation is in the winter when the snow melts
Because of the harsh climate, very little agriculture is practised here. This region is inhabited by pastoral nomads who migrate in search of pastures. Most parts of Tibet and Gobi deserts and Patagonia plateau in Argentina have low population density.
In lowlands of central Asia, agricultural development, mining and industrial development have also taken place. These are the regions where transhumance is practiced
Tundra climate (Polar lowlands)
The Tundra climate includes the vast lowlands, lying along the shores of Arctic Ocean, where the ground is frozen for the greater part of the year. Areas experiencing Tundra climate are found in the north of Asia as well as in Canada and Europe where they are known as Barren lands. The region has long severe cold winter and a short cool summer
For this reason, there is no possibility of any form of agriculture. However, few people inhabiting the region are nomadic, and hunting and fishing are their chief occupations. Furs and skins are the chief products and articles of trade
Polar highlands (ice cap type)
Antarctica and Greenland are examples of large landmasses in polar regions having permanent ice caps. During summer, the temperature does not exceed 10°C. Precipitation is low and occurs as snowfall during winter
For very few people living here, hunting and fishing are their main occupations. They use boats and modern equipment for fishing. Mining of oil and gold in Alaska, iron ore in Labrador, nickel in Siberia has resulted in the establishment of mining settlements with adequate transport facilities by land, sea and air.
The harsh environment does not encourage permanent settlement. The Eskimos of Canada and Alaska and the Yakuts of Siberia lead a nomadic life. They live in igloos in winter and tents in summer. External contacts have changed the lives of nomads. Some of them live in permanent wooden houses with all basic amenities. Reindeer farms have been established in the Soviet Union. Glass houses have been set up for the cultivation of vegetables to meet the needs of the local population.
Mountain climate
This climate is also referred to as the alpine climate or highland climate. One simple definition of the mountain climate is the climate which causes trees to fail to grow due to coldness. However, in the tropics, mountains have a variety of climates starting from the foot to the peak. The slopes of these mountains support the growth of highland crops such as coffee, tea and banana. Mountain forests also contain various wildlife, including mountain lions, snow leopards, birds, and insects.
This can form the basis for tourism as the case of Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania. Some lumbering activities also take place. For mountains outside the tropics, livestock keeping by transhumance is carried out by nomadic tribes. During winter, nomads move to the valleys and in summer they move to the upper parts of the mountain.
Ways of Solving Climatic Problems
Human activities, to a large extent, and natural forces, to a small extent, cause world climatic problems. Climate change has a number of detrimental impacts on humans, plants and animals as we learned earlier. Therefore, all causes of climatic problems must be stopped or counteracted in one way or another
A number of measures are taken by individuals and nations, including Tanzania, to curb climatic problems. The possible solutions to climatic problems include the following:
Reduction of carbon emissions ,
The carbon dioxide gas that accumulates in the atmosphere comes from the burning of coal, oil and natural gas. Constructive measures to reduce the production of this greenhouse gas must be taken. Reduction of carbon emissions can be achieved by implementing a comprehensive set of climate solutions which include:
a. promoting the use of renewable energy and transforming our energy system to one that is cleaner and less dependent on coal and other fossil fuels
b. increasing vehicle fuel efficiency and supporting other solutions that reduce oil use
c. building a clean energy economy by investing in efficient energy technologies
d. industries and approaches; and reducing tropical deforestation and its associated global warming emissions
Afforestation,
Afforestation is the act of planting trees at a place where there has been none. It is the process of planting trees, or sowing seeds, in a barren land devoid of any trees to create a forest. The use of trees helps to solve climatic problems is twofold
First, plants regulate the amount of carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere because they absorb and use the gas as one of the raw materials in the process of photosynthesis. Secondly, trees reduce desertification and hence minimize the chances of occurrence of climatic problems
Education ,
Providing education to the public about the importance of conserving the environment and the detriment of environmental destruction is one of the strategies to solve climatic problems. Education can be provided as a formal education taught at schools and colleges.
It is crucial to inculcate the spirit of conserving the environment to our children when they are still young so that they grow with that mentality quite off from childhood, Another form of education is informal education that can be imparted to members of the general public via mass media, political rallies, meetings, campaigns, workshops, and even seminars.
Laws and rules,
The government must make and implement the laws and rules that govern environmental conservation. Any individual who breaches the passed laws must be punished.
This will help stop people from destroying our environment for flimsy personal gains but enormous detrimental effects on the climate. For example, heavy punishments should be imposed upon those individuals, who destroy water catchments, dump wastes carelessly, or destroy government forest reserves
Use of appropriate technology,
The term appropriate technology is used to describe the use of technology and engineering that result in less negative impacts on the environment and society.
This means that the technology should be both environmentally sustainable and socially appropriate. Appropriate technology can help preserve the environment through energy efficiency and reduction of harmful waste
Good farming methods,
These include the use of environmentally friendly methods such as practising organic farming and crop varieties that resist pests and diseases and hence minimise the use of agrochemicals. The methods will ensure high yields while preventing environmental problems caused by improper agricultural practices,
Good farming practices also include avoiding overgrazing, over-cultivation, overuse of agrochemicals, and farming along deep slopes. Such bad farming methods cause environmental degradation like soil erosion, soil pollution, and loss of edaphic biodiversity. All of these bring about climatic problems
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